The next chapter, the Taika Reforms

Liu Rengui submitted a memorial to Emperor Gaozong, stating that if the troops were to withdraw, Baekje would inevitably revive and once again unite with Goguryeo. This would return the situation to that of several years prior, forcing the Tang army to relinquish all occupied territories, expending countless human and material resources to no avail. Gaozong found his argument persuasive and ordered that the former territories of Baekje be firmly defended, also dispatching Sun Renshi and others to provide support across the sea

In the following years, Prince Naka no Ōe constructed fortifications throughout northern Kyushu, western Honshu, and the Yamato region, the center of governance, in preparation for a potential attack by the Tang army. However, it was not until 668 that the Tang Dynasty finally destroyed Goguryeo, after which it became embroiled in wars with Silla, leaving it with no time to pay attention to Wa (perhaps Guo Wuchang's observations in Kyushu also made the Tang Dynasty reluctant to cross the sea to open a new battlefield). Prince Naka no Ōe toiled for several years, nearly exhausting his family's resources, only to find that all his efforts were in vain. However, it was not until 668 that the Tang Dynasty finally destroyed Goguryeo, after which it became embroiled in wars with Silla, leaving it with no time to pay attention to Wa (perhaps Guo Wuchang's observations in Kyushu also made the Tang Dynasty reluctant to cross the sea to open a new battlefield). Prince Naka no Ōe toiled for several years, nearly exhausting his family's resources, only to find that all his efforts were in vain

In the year 641, Emperor Jomei passed away at the Baekje Palace. Soga no Emishi emulated the actions of his father, and instead of appointing the emperor's son, he designated the empress, Princess Takara, who was also the niece of Emperor Jomei, as the emperor. This marked the emergence of the second female sovereign in Japanese history—Empress Kogyoku

In this way, one can understand that Queen Eda's behavior of changing partners frequently does not stem from a lack of character or an inherently lascivious nature. Furthermore, the marriages of Emperor Tenji and Emperor Tenmu to Queen Eda were not necessarily purely coercive, nor were they condemned by societal opinion for taking their brother's wife. As for Queen Kagami, who may have been a half-sister to Emperor Tenji, this does not affect the legitimacy of their marital relationship. The form of marriage in Japan, where the woman holds the dominant position, was only formally changed and reversed after the rise of the samurai regime, transitioning to a system where the man holds the dominant position in marriage.

During the era of Prince Shotoku's regency, our country finally ended a long period of division and established the powerful Sui Dynasty. Feeling the significance of this, the Prince sent envoys westward to investigate the political system of the Sui, beginning a series of reforms aimed at establishing a feudal centralized system with the Emperor (Great King) at its core. His reform measures primarily included the formulation of ranks (the origin of the bureaucratic system), the establishment of a constitution, the promotion of Buddhism, the restoration of diplomatic relations between China and Japan, and the compilation of historical texts

After the death of Emperor Kōtoku, Prince Naka no Ōe did not ascend the throne—perhaps he found his role as regent quite interesting—nor did he establish the son of Emperor Kōtoku as emperor. Instead, he once again brought forth his own mother, allowing Empress Kogyoku to ascend the throne for a second time at the palace of Asuka, where she was renamed Empress Saimei

In the year 658, Prince Arima, the son of Emperor Kōtoku, urged Empress Saimei and Prince Naka no Ōe to go to the Muro Hot Springs in Kii for recuperation, intending to take the opportunity to incite a rebellion in Asuka. However, he was soon arrested due to infighting among his followers and was hanged at Fujihirasaka.

Meanwhile, an army of twenty-seven thousand from the Wa Kingdom had landed on the Korean Peninsula, employing the strategy of besieging Wei to rescue Zhao. Instead of first aiding Baekje, they captured several cities in Silla. Liu Rengui chose to ignore them, gathering troops from various routes to march south, heading straight for the estuary of the Baichun River, preparing to encircle the city of Zhouliu where Fu Yu and Feng Zhang were located

In 585, King Mindai passed away, and King Yumei ascended the throne, showing great reverence for Buddhism. King Yumei ruled for only two years before his death, leading to intense conflicts between the Soga and Mononobe clans over the issue of the heir to the throne, escalating to life-and-death struggles. Soga no Umako intended to establish Queen Chikuyahime, the widow of King Mindai and his own niece, as the queen, while Mononobe no Tōyū's son, Mononobe no Moroya, planned to support the half-brother of King Yumei, Aso no Be. In July 587, Soga no Umako, acting on the orders of Chikuyahime, executed Aso no Be and subsequently dispatched troops to besiege Mononobe no Moroya's residence. After fierce resistance, Mononobe no Moroya was ultimately defeated and killed, resulting in the Soga clan's dominance in the Yamato court—Soga no Umako can be regarded as the first powerful minister in Japanese history.

After Nakatsukasa no Kamatari secured the support of the powerful clan of Tanishikawa Maro in Kazan, he meticulously planned and repeatedly lobbied, also rallying many dissatisfied factions against Soga no Iruka's usurpation of power. Soga no Iruka became aware of this and heightened the defenses of his residence. Left with no other options, Nakatsukasa no Kamatari and his associates waited for the opportunity when Soga no Iruka left home to participate in diplomatic activities at the Taigiden, and then launched a sudden coup.

This event took place in the third year of the Longshuo era of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty (663 AD), during the month of August. At that time, the Tang generals Liu Renyuan and Sun Renshi, along with the army led by King Jin Famian of Silla, surrounded the city of Zhouli. Liu Rengui and Du Shuang, along with the surrendered Baekje prince Buyeo Long, arranged 170 warships at the mouth of the Baichuan River. The Japanese forces, sensing the urgency of the situation, realized that if Zhouli was captured and Buyeo Fengzhang was taken prisoner, they would have no excuse to remain on the Korean Peninsula. Thus, they hurriedly came to the rescue. On August 27, over 20,000 Japanese troops and nearly 1,000 warships arrived at the mouth of the Baichuan River.

The main content of the Taika Reform was the abolition of the clan-based system, modeled after the Tang Dynasty of China. It established the system of land distribution and the system of taxation and labor obligations. In other words, all the land and mountains in the entire Japanese nation nominally belonged to the Emperor, referred to as "public land," and the people were nominally considered state-owned, referred to as "public citizens." The court granted land (known as "distributed land") to public citizens every six years, and the citizens had the obligation to pay land rent and perform labor services on time. Upon the death of the landholder, the distributed land was to be returned to the state. This effectively transformed Japan from a slave society into a feudal society. In the sixth year of Taika, the era name was changed to Hakuchi, and in the third year of Hakuchi, the first household registration was established, marking the beginning of land distribution.

Rather than being advice, this statement is more akin to a threat. Mori no Shishi naturally refused to comply and fled to the residence of Prince Pako (the son of Shotoku Taishi) to hide. However, he was indeed unfortunate, as not long after, Prince Pako passed away. With no support, Mori no Shishi was forced to confront Soga no Emishi in battle, suffered defeat, and was subsequently executed by strangulation. Thus, Soga no Emishi supported Prince Tamura in ascending to the throne, who became Emperor Shōmei.

In accordance with the economic system, the court also reformed the administrative system. Under the guidance of the centralization ideology, it learned from the Tang Dynasty's system of three provinces and six ministries, establishing "eight provinces and a hundred officials" and formulating the "seven colors and thirteen ranks of official headgear" (which was later increased to nineteen ranks). At the local level, a three-tier administrative division of countries, prefectures, and neighborhoods was established, each governed by officials appointed by the court: the governor for the country, the prefect for the prefecture, and the neighborhood chief. Thus, the bureaucratic system began to take shape.

On the basis of the clan system, the surname system was gradually established. In ancient China, the surname represented blood relations, while the clan name represented identity; conversely, in Japan, the clan name system is exactly the opposite. The clan originally referred to a clan commune centered around blood relations. After the bifurcation into two levels, its leader was called the clan chief, who presided over the worship of the clan deity, resolved internal disputes, and represented the clan in interactions with other clans or the court. The surname was originally a respectful title for the clan chief, which later gradually became a title bestowed by the Yamato dynasty to distinguish the ranks of the clan chiefs. For example, descendants of the emperor were often granted the surnames Shin and Kun, while many traditional clan chiefs were granted the surname Ren. Clan chiefs of Chinese or Korean immigrants were granted the surnames Shu and Shi, among others such as Be, Ko, Choku, Zo, Mura, In, and others. The most prestigious surnames are Shin and Ren, with those holding high positions in the court referred to as Daishin and Daren.

Certainly, the remnants of the old society will ultimately be gradually abandoned by history. First, the primitive system, then the slave system, Japan will eventually enter a completely feudal society, but this is not something that can be achieved overnight. Merely the "Taika Reform" as a single transformation cannot resolve the issues. Moreover, even during the process of reform, the struggle between the old and new forces continues unabated.

In March 667, Prince Nakano, who had finally set his mind at ease, issued an edict to relocate the capital to Otsu Palace in Omi, and on New Year's Day of the following year, he officially ascended the throne, known in history as Emperor Tenji. In the same year, Emperor Tenji ordered the minister Kamatari to draft the Omi Code based on the Tang Dynasty's Zhenguan Code. This now-lost legal code is recognized as the first written legal code in Japanese history

The profound impact of the Battle of Baicun River on Japan is primarily reflected in three aspects: on one hand, Japan no longer dared to underestimate China, resolved to maintain peace between China and Japan, and increasingly regarded China as a teacher, leading to more frequent missions to Tang; on the other hand, Prince Shotoku, in order to overcome the crisis, was forced to compromise with the old clan powers, even issuing edicts to restore the clan system and the tribal system in certain regions, which undoubtedly represented a regression; the third aspect is that a large number of Baekje refugees fled to Japan, bringing advanced production techniques and infusing new blood into the island nation.

The Great Reform

This action instilled fear in all the princes, who believed that if they did not eliminate Soga no Iruka at the earliest opportunity, their own lives would be as precarious as that of Prince Yamabe no Ōe. Consequently, the middle ministers, including Kamatari, allied themselves with Prince Karu, the son of Emperor Shōmei and Empress Kōgyoku—also known as Prince Naka no Ōe—to seek an opportunity to eradicate the Soga clan.

Soga no Umako ultimately supported another brother of Emperor Yūryaku, known as King Chōjun, while he himself acted arrogantly and monopolized the court's authority. However, King Chōjun was not a fool willing to be a puppet; he was quite resentful of Soga no Umako's autocracy. On one occasion, seizing the opportunity when someone presented a wild boar, he lamented, "When will I be able to eliminate those I detest, just as one would sever the neck of this beast?" This remark brought him misfortune. Upon hearing of this, Soga no Umako dispatched his confidant, Tōkan no Chikyu, to assassinate King Chōjun, and then he killed Tōkan no Chikyu to silence him.

Nakatomi no Kamatari was astute and resourceful. He first sought to divide and dismantle the Soga clan from within, thus encouraging Prince Naka no Ōe to take the eldest daughter of Kamatari no Ishikawa Maro as his consort, thereby bringing Kamatari no Ishikawa Maro onto his side—this individual was originally the grandson of Soga no Umako and a cousin of Iruka. However, this political marriage should not be overly emphasized, as the practice of "visiting wives" was prevalent in the society of Yamato at that time

[● Ethnic Groups, Clan and Surname System]

By the mid-6th century, the system of serfdom gradually collapsed due to the development of productive forces. Many nobles were compelled to liberate their serfs, allowing them to become peasants and small producers with a certain degree of personal freedom and the obligation to pay tribute. This led to a fierce struggle between two ideological currents within the Yamato court: whether to reform in response to this social situation or to maintain the existing production relations. The former was led by the Soga clan, while the latter was represented by the Mononobe clan.

As powerful enemies pressed in, the small court of Baekje not only failed to unite against the enemy but also experienced continuous internal strife, seemingly on the verge of being completely consumed by the Tang army. However, at this critical moment, the Tang side also encountered a setback. The 350,000-strong army besieging the capital of Goguryeo, Pyongyang, was met with heavy snowfall and was forced to withdraw entirely back to their homeland. Seeing the unfavorable situation, the Silla army also began to pack their belongings in preparation for retreat. Emperor Gaozong issued an edict to Liu Renjui, instructing him to temporarily withdraw into Silla territory. However, at this critical moment, the Tang side also encountered a setback. The 350,000-strong army besieging the capital of Goguryeo, Pyongyang, was met with heavy snowfall and was forced to withdraw entirely back to their homeland. Seeing the unfavorable situation, the Silla army also began to pack their belongings in preparation for retreat. Emperor Gaozong issued an edict to Liu Renjui, instructing him to temporarily withdraw into Silla territory

The first phase of the struggle between the pro-Buddhists and the anti-Buddhists ended in a decisive victory for the Mononobe clan. Shortly after the entire Soga clan converted to the new faith, a plague suddenly broke out in Yamato, resulting in countless deaths. Taking advantage of this situation, Mononobe no Oyu incited the nobles, claiming that the calamity was a manifestation of the national deities' displeasure due to the introduction of Buddhism, which served as a warning to the people. Since Soga no Iname had married both of his daughters to King Kinmei, producing several princes and princesses, he held considerable power. The Mononobe clan was unable to bring him down in one fell swoop, so they could only act under imperial orders to dispatch troops, seal off Buddhist temples, and burn Buddhist statues—thus deepening the enmity between the two clans.

From the latter half of the 5th century, the trend of unification in China became increasingly evident, while the Korean Peninsula, due to the rise of Silla, was on the verge of breaking free from the tripartite division. The colonial influence of Wa (Japan) on the peninsula was gradually diminishing. The Yamato dynasty attempted to reverse the tide by continuously sending troops across the sea, but the result was only a series of uprisings from local nobles and the populace. In 479, 500 Emishi soldiers launched a rebellion in the west. The Yamato dynasty continued its efforts to turn the situation around by dispatching reinforcements, but this only led to further resistance from local nobles and commoners. In 527, the governor of Chikuzen Province, Panjing, raised the banner of rebellion, occupying the territories of "Huo" and "Feng," with the insurrection lasting for one year and three months.

Japan's leapfrog social development has resulted in the persistence of numerous customs and traditions from primitive and even matriarchal societies, even after the Taika Reforms. For instance, the marriage system primarily adopts the form of visiting wife marriage. In this system, women are the main subjects of marriage. Initially, men take the initiative, or women subtly suggest to men to express their affections through poetry or song to their beloved. The marriage relationship is ultimately established with the woman's consent, a stage referred to as "mokuai." Thus, women hold absolute initiative in marriage. Of course, in the upper class, the marriage relationship must also receive the approval of the woman's family. After the marriage contract is established, the wife continues to reside in her parental home, while the husband visits her home at night to cohabit with her, or they may practice short-term "visiting wife residence."

Perhaps Empress Jiming had grown old and could not withstand the hardships of the sea voyage. They departed from Namba in January 661 and arrived in Chikuzen in March. The Empress soon fell gravely ill and ultimately passed away in July. Following the Emperor's death, Prince Naka no Ōe did not immediately ascend to the throne. Dressed in mourning attire, he continued to reorganize the army under the title of regent (historically referred to as "Sufu Chōsei"). In September of that year, he dispatched an army of 5,000 to escort Fuyu Fuchō back to the east.

On May 17, 664, a sizable fleet arrived in Kyushu, causing great alarm throughout the Yamato court. The leader of the fleet was Guo Wuchong, a court official of the Tang Dynasty, who was sent by Liu Renyuan to visit Prince Zhongdaxiong, carrying official documents and gifts. Guo Wuchong made four visits to Japan, and during his third visit, he led a grand fleet of forty-seven ships and two thousand men, exuding an imposing presence and a fierce aura. It is believed that Liu Renyuan dispatched him to gather intelligence on the movements of the Japanese forces while simultaneously applying pressure.

This is the famous "Jinshi Rebellion" in Japanese history

It is said that Queen Eda had a sister known as Princess Kagami (some say she was the daughter of Emperor Shōmyō and a half-sister of Tenji). Originally, she was the consort of Tenji and possessed extraordinary beauty. The minister of merit, Kamatari, pursued her with great effort. Tenji, relying on Kamatari's assistance, granted Princess Kagami to Kamatari as his wife.

Amidst such profound contradictions, in December 671, Emperor Tenji passed away, bequeathing the throne to Prince Ōtomo. Prince Ōama, seeking to avoid disaster, voluntarily took monastic vows and retreated to Yoshino. Of course, Prince Ōama would not simply acquiesce, and Prince Ōtomo would not allow his uncle, who bore a formidable reputation, to live. The situation at that time seemed reminiscent of the power struggle between Prince Nakano and Prince Kōri, yet the outcome was entirely different.

In the year 571, King Chinmyo passed away, and the throne was succeeded by King Mindan. In November 577, Baekje once again joined the fray, offering scriptures and skilled workers for the creation of Buddha statues and the construction of temples, leading to a resurgence of Buddhism. Soga no Iname's son, Soga no Maro, seized the opportunity to reignite the pro-Buddhism sentiment, constructing a Buddhist hall in his residence in Ishikawa, but it was once again destroyed by the Mononobe clan. An epidemic coincidentally emerged, but this time it occurred after the destruction of the Buddha, as a skin disease spread throughout Yamato, affecting even King Mindan, who was covered in sores. Soga no Maro then advised that this was the consequence of disrespecting Buddhism, and that the Buddha would summon the king to the Western Paradise. King Mindan, frightened, had no choice but to agree to the Soga clan's continued support for Buddhism

Liu Rengui faced the challenge with composure. The "Old Book of Tang" states: "When encountering the Japanese troops at the mouth of the Baijiang River, he achieved four victories, burning four hundred of their ships, with smoke and flames rising to the sky, and the sea turned red, causing the enemy to suffer a great defeat." The specific details of this battle are difficult to ascertain, as historical records only mention that the Tang army "surrounded the enemy ships and fought," while the Japanese forces "had many drown in the water, unable to maneuver their vessels." However, it can be inferred that at that time, China's military strength was at its peak, and years of campaigns against Goguryeo and Baekje had undoubtedly forged an exceptionally resilient naval force. In contrast, the Japanese army, with inferior quality and equipment, had not faced major battles for years and was primarily composed of private soldiers from various local warlords. Even with careful formations, they were unlikely to match the Tang army, especially when they recklessly launched an attack without strategy.

The so-called visiting wife marriage refers to a situation where both parties do not establish a new household after marriage, but instead continue to reside in their respective parental homes. The marital life is primarily realized through the male visiting the female's home. This type of marital relationship is quite weak, and there is no stipulation that a man can only visit one woman (this is a true form of polygamy, without the distinction between wives and concubines). Therefore, the marital relationship is entirely less significant than blood relations. Rather than saying that Sōsan Tanishikawa Maro leaned towards Prince Nakano Ōe due to a political marriage, it is more accurate to say that he was dissatisfied with Soga no Iruka's control over the entire Soga family and sought to replace him.

Examining the Triangular Relationship of Tenji, Tenmu, and Queen Jitō in Ancient Japanese Marriage

Baijisu maintained friendly relations with the Wa Kingdom, and Prince Fuyu Fengzhang was held as a hostage in Wa. This was perhaps the only living member of the royal family that had fallen into the hands of the Tang. Therefore, Guishi Fuxin sent envoys to Wa, requesting the return of Fuyu Fengzhang. The elder prince in the Eastern Palace of Wa, troubled by the lack of military engagements to divert domestic conflicts, was overjoyed to receive this message. He then summoned troops from various regions, preparing to cross the sea and march towards the Korean Peninsula. Indeed, he was relentless, even bringing along his mother, Empress Qi Ming, as they boarded a ship to the Chiku region of Kitakyushu.

The Korean Peninsula consists of three kingdoms: in the north is Goguryeo, in the southwest is Baekje, and in the southeast is Silla. Originally, Goguryeo had the largest territory and the strongest national power. Emperor Yang of Sui and Emperor Taizong of Tang both launched military campaigns against it multiple times, yet were unable to subdue it. After Emperor Gaozong of Tang ascended the throne, he adopted a strategy of distant alliances and nearby attacks, forming an alliance with Silla to jointly pressure Goguryeo. In order to escape this unfavorable situation, Goguryeo also allied with Baekje, refraining from attacking the Tang dynasty, but instead launched simultaneous assaults on Silla from the north and east.

Princess Nukata may have been the daughter of a powerful clan in the Kinai region. It is said that she was beautiful and talented, and she initially fell in love with Prince Naka-no-ōe, who later became Emperor Tenji. However, she soon fell in love with her lover's younger brother, Prince Ōamateru, who later became Emperor Tenmu, and bore him a daughter, Princess Tachimi. After Emperor Tenji ascended the throne, he forcibly brought Princess Nukata to his court. Although she was in the inner palace, she still maintained a connection with Emperor Tenmu. When the Jinshin War broke out, Emperor Tenmu was defeated, and Prince Ōtomo ascended the throne, unceremoniously taking Princess Nukata to his side. However, at this moment, Princess Nukata found herself longing for the deceased Emperor Tenji, spending her days in tears. This complex love triangle inspired many beautiful poems, all recorded in the ancient Japanese poetry collection "Man'yōshū."

The reforms of Prince Shotoku were the origin and preparation for the subsequent "Taika Reforms." While he had little impact in the material realm, he pioneered educational efforts in the spiritual domain, laying a theoretical foundation for further reforms. In pursuit of this theoretical foundation, later reformers elevated Prince Shotoku to a revered status, venerating him as a sage. However, in reality, when powerful ministers held sway, the possibility of a sage governing was virtually nonexistent.

Prince Naka no Ōe accepted the counsel of Nakatomi no Kamatari and endorsed Prince Kiyohito. Prince Kiyohito, however, wished to yield the throne to Prince Kōri. Upon reflection, Prince Kōri considered that it was Soga no Iruka who had initially supported him, and now that Iruka was deceased, inheriting the throne would be exceedingly perilous. Thus, he firmly declined the offer and even shaved his head to become a monk as a declaration of his resolve. Consequently, Prince Kiyohito ascended to the throne, becoming Emperor Kōtoku.

The Reforms of Prince Shotoku

However, Confucian thought ultimately does not fully align with the national conditions of Japan. Subsequently, it has been repeatedly distorted and utilized, leading to a significant divergence between Japanese Confucianism and Chinese Confucianism. Moreover, Confucian thought does not easily penetrate the hearts of the people. The most successful preparation for reform in the realm of thought by Prince Shotoku was his promotion of Buddhism. By venerating Buddhism, he aimed to advocate for the equality of all beings and the principle of cause and effect, which, on one hand, weakened the people's resistance, and on the other hand, helped to dismantle the old hierarchical system, thereby ending the rigid class-based slave system.

The historical text "Samguk Sagi" from the Korean Peninsula describes: "At this time, the Japanese naval forces came to assist Baekje. A thousand Japanese ships anchored at Baisha. The elite cavalry of Baekje guarded the ships on the shore. The valiant cavalry of Silla served as the vanguard of Han, breaking the coastal formation first." At that time, in terms of overall military strength, Tang and Silla held the advantage; however, in terms of naval forces, the number of Japanese troops greatly exceeded that of Liu Renjui's contingent. Because of this, the Japanese forces, having not encountered a strong enemy for many years, became extremely arrogant and overbearing, believing that as long as they fought bravely, the Tang army would retreat without a fight. Thus, they charged in a disorganized and chaotic manner.

In the second year of the queen's reign, the heir of the Ming Dynasty was appointed as the Crown Prince, and he was simultaneously granted the title of "Regent." The intention behind this was likely to divide the power of the Soga clan. The Crown Prince was known for his wisdom; he was a devout Buddhist and admired the Chinese philosophy of a unified and centralized monarchy. In a certain sense, his ideals and those of Soga no Mariko converged. However, while Mariko was only concerned with wielding power, the Crown Prince aspired to fundamentally reform the old system and establish a new national framework. Later generations honored him with the title of Prince Shotoku.

It is traditionally believed that Nakatomi no Kamatari was born in 614 and died in 669. He did not study abroad, but maintained good relations with the envoys to Tang and the students who stayed in Tang, humbly learning from them about the advanced culture and systems of the continent. Due to the usurpation of power by the Soga family, Nakatomi no Kamatari resigned from his official position and returned to seclusion in 644, waiting for the right moment to act—what was that moment? He soon set his sights on Prince Naka no Ōe.

In the following year, Fu Yu Fengzhang ascended the throne in Zhouliucheng, while the Japanese side continuously dispatched troops for support. By March 663, a large fleet of 27,000 men was assembled, making a grand crossing to the Korean Peninsula, which greatly inspired the remnants of Baekje to rise in rebellion. The Tang army, engaged in fierce battles with Goguryeo in the north, realized they could no longer sit idly by. Thus, they dispatched General Liu Rengui to lead the troops, joining forces with the soldiers of Silla to march south for rescue, quickly capturing several cities.

The Impact of Defeat on Japan

Soga no Umako stated, "Most Western countries adhere to Buddhism; how can our country remain stagnant and refuse to accept it?" To which Mononobe no Moriya retorted, "Our country has always worshipped national deities (referring to various indigenous clan gods). If we were to convert to foreign deities, it might provoke the wrath of our national gods." King Kinmei found himself unable to decide, and thus ordered that the Soga clan be allowed to try worshipping the Buddha statue alone to see the outcome: whether the foreign deities would prevail over the national gods, ensuring the prosperity of the Soga clan, or whether the national gods would triumph over the foreign deities, leading to calamity for the Soga clan.

At that time, Prince Naka no Ōe wielded immense power and did not regard Emperor Kōtoku with any respect. He acted unilaterally regarding various reform measures, and the conflict between the two intensified. In the fourth year of Hakuchi (653), Prince Naka no Ōe petitioned to relocate the capital back to the Asuka region. After his request was denied, he even took a group of ministers and left Naniwa, returning to Asuka on his own. Emperor Kōtoku was deeply affected by this blow and fell ill from worry and anger the following year, ultimately passing away.

In the same year, seventeen articles of the constitution were formulated, vigorously promoting Chinese Confucian thought and advocating the Three Principles and Five Constants. The "Constitution" is not a law in the true sense; it resembles a textbook on moral philosophy, instilling in the Japanese the feudal ideology of "a nation cannot have two rulers, and the people cannot have two masters; all lands and subjects are under the rule of one king." Prince Shotoku understood that reform could not be achieved overnight, as the power of the old clans remained substantial and could not be eradicated at once. Therefore, he had to first "educate" them, establishing moral standards that supported the king, and once the time was ripe, he would introduce a completely new system.

Returning to Emperor Tenji, now that he has ascended the throne, it is only natural to establish a crown prince. The successor he selected was his brother, Prince Ōama, who was the most charismatic and influential among the royal family. In an effort to win over Prince Ōama, Emperor Tenji even married off all four of his daughters to him (a common practice of intergenerational marriage among relatives in ancient Japan). However, Prince Ōama still had a contentious relationship with his brother and father-in-law, frequently provoking the emperor with his words and actions, even going so far as to openly display his dissatisfaction at banquets by "piercing a board with a long spear".

Emperor Shū ruled for thirteen years, achieving little of significance, while Soga no Emishi and his son Soga no Iruka grew increasingly arrogant and domineering. This provoked dissatisfaction among many middle and minor nobles who had gained the opportunity to participate in governance due to the reforms of Prince Shōtoku. It is said that Kamatari, a descendant of the Mononobe clan, was their leader, while Yamabuki no Ōe was their spiritual leader

The so-called surnames of the Japanese today should actually be written as "myōji." Apart from those newly created or associated surnames after the Meiji Restoration, the main sources are the designations established in ancient and medieval times to distinguish different lineages with the same surname. The original system of clan names has become entirely distinct from this.

Many of Prince Shōtoku's reform measures were learned from China, which is why he sent envoys multiple times to establish relations with the Sui Dynasty, aiming to learn more advanced culture from the mainland. In 607, the envoy Ono no Imoko first visited Sui, carrying a state letter that stated, "The Emperor of the Land of the Rising Sun sends greetings to the Emperor of the Land of the Setting Sun." The following year, during the second mission to Sui, the title in the state letter changed to, "The Eastern Emperor respectfully presents this to the Western Emperor"—this is the earliest record of a Japanese monarch being referred to as "Emperor." It seems that the Yamato court wanted to establish equal diplomatic relations with the Sui Dynasty, feeling that it was quite embarrassing for the Chinese monarch to be called "Emperor" while the Yamato monarch was merely referred to as "Great King" (some say that the Japanese monarch referred to themselves as Emperor only after the first year of the reign of Tang Gaozong, which is 674 AD).

The reforms of Prince Shotoku were grounded in social realities. At that time, the system of tribal governance was gradually collapsing, with nobles extensively consolidating land and leasing it to commoners for cultivation, leading to a significant transformation of tribal members into serfs or tenant farmers. The Soga clan had once been progressive in terms of religious reform; however, after seizing power, they were reluctant to allow changes that would also impact the socio-economic sphere, ultimately becoming an obstacle to reform. They were unafraid of wielding power and acting arrogantly, but if they sought to hinder the progress of history, their only fate would be destruction.

Soga no Iruka, realizing he could not escape, knelt before the Empress Kōgō and declared, "I do not know my crime." The Empress, alarmed, inquired of Prince Nakadachi. Prince Nakadachi, prostrating himself, reported, "Soga no Iruka conspired to murder the princes, seeking to overthrow the imperial throne and replace the imperial lineage with the Soga clan, a crime that cannot be forgiven!" Observing his composed demeanor, the Empress understood that he was well-prepared and that this matter could not be easily resolved. With a long sigh, she turned and retreated into the inner palace. Prince Nakadachi shouted, and the crowd descended upon Soga no Iruka with their swords, turning him into a mass of flesh.

From the mid-6th century when Buddhism was introduced until the Taika Reform in 645, the culture of this century is referred to as the "Asuka Culture"—named after the Asuka region in the southern part of the Nara Basin where the Yamato court was established at that time. The Asuka Culture is characterized by a strong Buddhist influence, which is inseparable from the ruling Soga clan and the efforts of Prince Shotoku. This period also marks the transition of Wa (Japan) from a slave society to a feudal system.

During the period when the Japanese nation was flourishing and even had the capacity to launch foreign invasions to establish the Lintao colony, the Korean Peninsula was divided among three kingdoms, and China was also in the midst of the chaotic Northern and Southern Dynasties. Consequently, a large number of Chinese and Koreans flowed into Japan, including both captured prisoners of war and voluntary immigrants. Japanese historical records frequently mention Han people (Chinese), Silla people, Goryeo people (Goguryeo people), and Korean people (Lintao people), as well as Baekje people, among others. They brought advanced production technologies and methods, further refining the slave society of Wa.

In the year 622, Prince Shotoku was unable to don the crown of "Emperor" that he had established, and passed away at the Hōkō Palace. Four years later, Soga no Umako died, and two years after that, Empress Suiko also passed away. Soga no Umako was succeeded in his ministerial position by his son Soga no Emishi, who, along with his uncle, the Minister of State, Soga no Marise, discussed the issue of the imperial succession. Emishi advocated for the grandson of Emperor Yōmei, Prince Tamura, while Marise supported the son of Prince Shotoku, Prince Yamashiro. At that time, the entire Soga clan was mourning at the grave of Soga no Umako, and Marise burned down his hut and returned home to demonstrate his unwillingness to compromise on such a significant issue. Soga no Emishi sent someone to persuade him, saying: "Everyone else is wrong, and you are right; I will certainly follow your opinion. If everyone else is right and you are not enlightened, I will naturally oppose your opinion. Do not be obstinate; if we two were to fight, the state would surely fall into chaos, and future generations would say that it was we who brought ruin to the country, leaving behind a thousand years of infamy. Why suffer this? Do not continue to oppose your kin!"

The Soga clan sought to ensure the enduring prominence of the Soga family, diligently nurturing their son Iruka, and unilaterally bestowing upon him the purple crown of "Great Virtue," thereby enabling him to control the affairs of state. The Soga ancestors and descendants, each more arrogant than the last, reached a peak during Iruka's era, where their ceremonial processions were on par with that of the Emperor. The children of the Soga family were referred to as princes, clearly not mere ministers, but rather the true rulers of Wa. In order to suppress opposing forces and to facilitate the ascension of the ancient prince with Soga blood to the next imperial throne, Iruka even dispatched troops to attack Prince Yamashiro, forcing him to commit suicide. The Soga ancestors and descendants, each more arrogant than the last, reached a peak during Iruka's era, where their ceremonial processions were on par with that of the Emperor. The children of the Soga family were referred to as princes, clearly not mere ministers, but rather the true rulers of Wa. In order to suppress opposing forces and to facilitate the ascension of the ancient prince with Soga blood to the next imperial throne, Iruka even dispatched troops to attack Prince Yamashiro, forcing him to commit suicide

After the Battle of Baicun River, all Japanese soldiers retreated, and the remaining people of Baekje were filled with fear. Zhouliucheng was quickly captured, and Fu Yu Fengzhang fled to Goguryeo. Emperor Gaozong of Tang greatly rewarded Liu Rengui, appointing him as the governor of Daifang to guard the former territory of Baekje

In June 645, the three kingdoms of the Korean Peninsula—Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla—sent envoys to Yamato to establish friendly relations with the Yamato court. According to protocol, the minister Soga no Iruka was to be present, and at the same time, Kuramiyama no Ishikawa no Maro (written in Japanese kanji as 上麻下吕) was to read the formal document. This Kuramiyama no Ishikawa no Maro was also affiliated with Prince Naka no Ōe's faction and suggested seizing this opportunity to assassinate Soga no Iruka.

On June 12, the Empress of the Supreme, the Prince of the Ancient Great Brother, and the ministers all gathered at the Taiji Hall to prepare for the reception of the envoys from the Three Kingdoms. The chief minister, Kamezuki, devised a plan to disarm Suo no Iruka, who was never far from his accompanying sword. Meanwhile, the Prince of the Great Brother ordered the Imperial Guards to lock the twelve palace gates, waiting for Sakanoue no Tamuramaro to read the proclamation, at which point assassins such as Saeki no Renko Maro would rush out to take Iruka's life

Nakatomi no Kamatari passed away two years later. This individual assisted Emperor Tenji, not only reforming the old systems of the Yamato state politically and economically, but also making significant contributions to religious affairs. In order to suppress the increasingly expanding influence of Buddhism since the Soga clan came to power, he integrated the ancient kami beliefs from various regions of Yamato, refining them into a native Shintoism (which also rejected Buddhism, leading later generations to confuse Kamatari with Kamatari, or perhaps Kamatari was indeed a derivative of Kamatari's shadow). One day before his death, Emperor Tenji bestowed upon him the highest court rank, the Great Woven Crown, and granted him the surname Fujiwara, thus establishing the largest priestly family in Japan, which ultimately led to the Fujiwara clan's regent politics that ruled Japan for over two hundred years.

Battle of Baichuan River

Prince Naka no Ōe immediately led his troops to occupy Hōkō-ji, fortifying the city in preparation for battle. He also returned the body of Soga no Iruka to his father, Soga no Emishi, effectively issuing a declaration of war. Discontented with the Soga clan's monopolization of power, many members of the imperial family and nobility came to pledge their allegiance, causing the grand edifice of the Soga clan to collapse in an instant. Emishi, realizing the tide had turned against him, set fire to his residence and perished in the flames. Regrettably, the historical texts "Chronicles of the Heavenly Sovereign" and "Chronicles of the Nation," which he had compiled under the orders of Prince Shōtoku, were also reduced to ashes.

The authority of the Soga clan did not become more solidified with the ascension of Queen Suiko. The queen had no regard for her uncle Soga no Mako. Soga no Mako had previously requested the grant of the Kōri territory, but the queen declined, stating: "As a woman of the Soga family, requests made by my uncle at night will never wait until dawn, and those made during the day will not be delayed until nightfall; they will always be handled promptly. However, this time, my uncle's request is excessive. If I were to grant a county without reason today, future kings would surely scold me as a foolish woman ruling the realm!" Thus, she politely refused Soga no Mako's unreasonable demand.

The Soga clan, including Soga no Emishi and his son, was annihilated in a single day, prompting the ministers, including Nakatomi no Kamatari, to celebrate by donning their caps and immediately initiating comprehensive reforms. After Emperor Kōtoku ascended the throne, he appointed Prince Naka no Ōe as the Crown Prince, Nakatomi no Kamatari as the Minister of the Interior, Kurama no Ishikawa no Maro as the Minister of the Right, and Abe no Naramaro as the Minister of the Left. The students, Monk Min and Takasaka no Genri, were appointed as national advisors. Under the impetus of these reformists, in the same month (June) that the Soga clan was executed and Emperor Kōtoku ascended the throne, they adopted the Chinese practice of establishing an era name, designating it as "Taika," and in December, they moved the capital to Naniwa. On New Year's Day of the second year of Taika (646), the "Edict of Reform" was issued—this is the renowned "Taika Reforms"

After the war, the Tang Dynasty abandoned its agreement with Silla and took control of the former territories of Baekje, establishing five military governorships, including Xiongjin and Mahān, to administer them. King Muyeol of Silla was furious but dared not speak out, and could only continue to assist the Tang army in their northern campaign against Goguryeo. However, completely annihilating a nation is not an easy task. Soon, the Baekje loyalist Gwisil Boksin raised the banner and gathered troops in Zhouliucheng, plotting to restore the country. Yet, the entire royal family had been captured and taken to Chang'an, leaving him to ponder whom he could rally as a leader.

The Struggle Between Buddhism and Anti-Buddhism

The Yamato court was unwilling to welcome Guo Wuchang to the capital, yet did not dare to expel him by force. It was not until November that the minister Kamatatsu proposed a plan to invite Guo Wuchang to a banquet hosted by the monk Zhixiang, presenting gifts from Prince Nakadaiyu and subtly suggesting that he leave as soon as possible. Guo Wuchang, however, remained leisurely and did not depart from Kyushu until February of the following year—Prince Nakadaiyu must have greatly sighed in relief.

The Battle of Baicun River dealt a heavy blow to Prince Shotoku. He initially intended to use the war to shift domestic conflicts, but not only did he suffer a significant defeat, he also completely lost the last remnants of Japan's influence on the Korean Peninsula. Furthermore, at that time, public opinion in the country was in an uproar, with widespread rumors that the Tang and Silla allied forces were about to cross the sea to attack Japan. Prince Shotoku was compelled to send envoys to the Tang Dynasty to restore relations while simultaneously establishing defensive forces (garrison troops) and beacon towers in Tsushima, Iki, and Chikuzen, as well as constructing a massive water city in Chikuzen to enhance the defensive posture of Kyushu.

Nakatomi no Kamatari, also known as Nakatomi no Kamatatsu, is mentioned in the "Nihon Shoki". According to its records, when Buddhism was introduced, Soga no Iname insisted on its acceptance, while Mononobe no Oyu and Nakatomi no Kamatatsu firmly opposed it. If Kamatatsu is indeed Kamatari, then he would be at least one hundred and five years old at this time, which is quite unreasonable

Three months after the era name change, Prince Naka no Ōe fled to Yoshino under the pretext of becoming a monk, colluding with the relatives and former officials of Soga no Iruka to plot a rebellion. However, the plan was leaked, and he was killed. Then, in 649, another grandson of Soga no Umako, Soga no Hinata, falsely accused Kōsantake no Ishikawa Maro of plotting rebellion. Without thorough investigation, Prince Naka no Ōe forced his father-in-law, Kōsantake no Ishikawa Maro, a meritorious minister who had killed Iruka, to commit suicide. It is said that although Kōsantake no Ishikawa Maro opposed the Soga clan, he did not support the reforms. After the change in the cap system, he continued to wear the old cap to court. Prince Naka no Ōe had long been dissatisfied with him, so he seized this opportunity to eliminate him.

First, let us discuss the establishment of the court ranks. The court ranks are divided into twelve levels: Great Virtue, Small Virtue, Great Benevolence, Small Benevolence, Great Ceremony, Small Ceremony, Great Trust, Small Trust, Great Righteousness, Small Righteousness, Great Wisdom, and Small Wisdom. This system began in the twelfth year of Queen Suiko's reign and was initially an honorary title granted to the nobility. The intention was to create a noble system that valued talent and achievements rather than the size of one's clan, distinct from the existing titles of ministers and clans. Over time, this system gradually transformed into a bureaucratic structure, which is why the court ranks were primarily awarded to the lower and middle nobility in the capital region and its surroundings.

The new and old forces engaged in a series of fierce battles. Although Prince Zhongda was firmly in the advantageous position, he still felt constrained. Furthermore, his mother, Empress Qi Ming, was neglecting her moral duties, engaging in extensive construction projects that increased the burdens on the common people, leading to widespread anger and resentment. Consequently, Prince Zhongda sought to divert domestic conflicts by waging war abroad. In 661, he traveled with his mother to the Chiku region of Kyushu, planning to intervene in the war on the Korean Peninsula—the "Battle of Baichuan River," which had a significant impact on the East Asian region, thus erupted.

The primary manifestation of social reform is religious reform. The Soga clan aimed to utilize Buddhist thought introduced from the continent and the Korean Peninsula to construct a new religious system, in order to suppress local aristocratic power and achieve a centralized authority in response to social needs. The Soga clan is a branch of the Katsuragi clan, and their ancestor Soga no Umako is said to have once governed clans such as the Eastern Han, Western Wen, and Qin. From these clan names, it can be inferred that they mostly originated from immigrants from the continent

After a series of alliances and strategies, the first to suffer was Baekje. In the fifth year of the Tang Dynasty's Xianqing era (660), in March, Emperor Gaozong of Tang appointed Su Dingfang as the commander of the army, leading a joint force of 130,000 troops to attack the Kingdom of Baekje. With the support of 50,000 soldiers from Silla, the Tang army advanced with unstoppable momentum, quickly surrounding the capital of Baekje. King Uichir of Baekje was captured and sent to Chang'an, leading to the fall of Baekje

After the Taika Reform, the form of visiting marriage underwent some changes, transitioning from an informal visiting arrangement to a more fixed practice of recruiting sons-in-law, yet the wife still maintained a dominant role in marital life. The phenomena arising from this visiting marriage, which are difficult for the Chinese to comprehend, include the following points: First, if the husband no longer visits the wife's family, or if the wife refuses the husband's visits, it signifies the end of the marriage, and it is not solely the husband who holds the right to divorce (in ancient China, in most cases, only the husband had the right to divorce, referred to as "divorcing the wife"); Second, the wife resides in her natal home and, while maintaining the marital status, is still able to engage with multiple men, and men can simultaneously visit multiple wives, leading to a complete absence of the concept of chastity in Japanese society, where extramarital affairs are very common and socially accepted; Third, since the couple does not establish a separate household, the hierarchy becomes confused, and marriages between close relatives across generations are also common.

In this context, around the 4th century, the systems of the commoners and the clan surnames emerged. The so-called commoners refer to the private groups of people owned by the royal family and nobility, whose status lies between that of serfs and slaves. They either worked collectively on the estates of the royal family and nobility or regularly went to the households and workshops of the royal family and nobility to engage in production and service work. The initial sources of commoners were slaves, war captives, immigrants, and criminals, and later a considerable number of free individuals from local communes also joined them. They either worked collectively on the estates of the royal family and nobility or regularly went to the households and workshops of the royal family and nobility to engage in production and service work. The initial sources of commoners were slaves, war captives, immigrants, and criminals, and later a considerable number of free individuals from local communes also joined them

The Usurpation and Downfall of the Soga Father and Son

The development of Japanese history has been characterized by leaps. Japan rapidly transitioned from a primitive society to a slave society due to the acceptance of new cultures and technologies from the continent and the Korean Peninsula. However, it inevitably retained many remnants of primitive society and even matriarchal society, as exemplified by the practice of visiting wives. Following this significant transformation, Japan suddenly entered a feudal society, resulting in a unique social structure that is feudal in form, slave in substance, yet still interspersed with primitive elements, creating a distinctive and anomalous societal configuration.

In opposition to the Soga clan, the Mononobe clan upheld the complex and diverse deity worship of the Yamato state, opposing the veneration of Buddhism. In October 552 (some say 538), King Seongmyung of Baekje presented a gilded statue of Shakyamuni and several scriptures to the Yamato state. This led to intense debate between the Soga and Mononobe clans regarding whether the statue should be enshrined by the king of Yamato. At that time, the king of Yamato was King Kinmei, the leader of the Soga clan was Minister Soga no Iname, and the leader of the Mononobe clan was Mononobe no Oe.

However, when the moment arrived, Saeki Renko and others were filled with trepidation. As Kurayama Tada Ishikawa Maro was about to finish reading the proclamation, no one made a move, leading them to believe that the conspiracy had been exposed, causing them to tremble uncontrollably. Soga no Iruka was not a fool; upon seeing this situation, he sensed something was amiss and pretended to inquire, "Why are you trembling?" Kurayama Tada Ishikawa Maro stammered in response, "Because standing before the Emperor makes me feel extremely nervous." Just as the plan seemed on the verge of collapse, Prince Naka no Oe, who was hidden in the shadows, took decisive action. He leaped out with a loud shout and struck Soga no Iruka on the shoulder with his sword. Soga no Iruka hurriedly dodged, but encouraged by Prince Naka no Oe's attack, Saeki Renko and the other assassins gained newfound courage and rushed out, injuring Soga no Iruka's legs.

Such chaotic relationships, including infidelity, adultery, and wife-stealing, may also involve elements of disorderly conduct. From the perspective of a Chinese person, this appears to be despicable and vile to the extreme. However, if one understands the unique marriage system in Japan at that time, all of this becomes less surprising.

Following this coup, Emperor Kōgō resolved to abdicate in favor of Prince Naka-no-Ōe. Prince Naka-no-Ōe was overjoyed and was about to accept, but he was dissuaded by the minister Kamatari. Kamatari's message was quite clear: you initiated the coup to eliminate treachery for the sake of the nation, not out of personal ambition. If you were to ascend the throne now, future generations would label you as a usurper. Of course, he did not express it in such terms; instead, he crafted a rationale: "Prince Naka-no-Ōe, the elder brother, is your elder brother, and Prince Kiyo is your uncle. If you were to bypass them in inheriting the throne, it would violate the order of seniority and the principles of filial piety and brotherly love." God knows, Japan's succession system has never adhered to seniority, and the so-called principles of filial piety and brotherly love from Confucianism were only recently introduced as foreign concepts.

It is believed that the Soga clan thought women were easier to control, so they took the initiative to appoint Princess Takuhō as queen, who is famously known in Japanese history as Empress Suiko

What grievances does Prince Ōmi have? There are primarily three reasons: First, although Emperor Tenji appointed Prince Ōmi as the Crown Prince, he refused to grant him the regent's powers as per tradition. In January 671, he further appointed his own son, Prince Ōtomo, as the Chancellor, effectively taking control of the government; Second, it is rumored that Emperor Tenji had an affair with Prince Ōmi's beloved, the talented and charming Princess Nukata, and ultimately claimed her for himself; Third, Prince Ōmi was extremely dissatisfied with the Emperor's compromises with conservative forces and sought to accelerate the pace of reform. It is rumored that Emperor Tenji had an affair with Prince Ōmi's beloved, the talented and charming Princess Nukata, and ultimately claimed her for himself; Third, Prince Ōmi was extremely dissatisfied with the Emperor's compromises with conservative forces and sought to accelerate the pace of reform